Stress (Holistic)
About This Condition
-
Get some extra C
Help normalize stress-hormone levels by taking 1 to 3 grams of vitamin C every day
-
Relax with rhodiola
Taking 170 mg a day of a standardized herbal extract during stressful phases may improve your feelings of well-being and support mental function
-
Work in a workout
Improve your resistance to stress by enjoying routine aerobic exercise
-
Participate in a program
Find a stress-reduction program that includes group counseling, instruction in coping skills, relaxation training, and other helpful techniques
-
Check out tyrosine
Occasionally taking this amino acid before a stressful activity can help maintain your mental capacity; calculate 150 mg for every 2.2 lbs of body weight and split into two doses (take the second dose 40 to 90 minutes after the first)
About
About This Condition
The popular idea of stress in relation to human health is often described as an unpleasant mental or emotional experience, as when people say they are “stressed out.” This expression relates primarily to the idea of prolonged or sudden and intense stress, which can have unpleasant effects on the body, impairing the ability to function, and even harming health.1, 2, 3 However, the biological concept of stress is much more broadly defined as any challenge (physical or psychological) that requires an organism to adapt in a healthy manner. In other words, responses to stress can sometimes be of benefit when the organism is strengthened by the experience. The discussion below focuses on reducing the effects of excessive, unwanted stress.
Symptoms
Symptoms may include anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, stomach problems, sweating, racing heart, rapid breathing, shortness of breath, and irritability. Many health problems have been associated with various kinds of sudden or long-term stress, including alcohol abuse,4asthma,5chronic fatigue,6, 7erectile dysfunction and male infertility,8fibromyalgia,9 headaches,10heart disease,11, 12, 13high blood pressure,14, 15immune system dysfunction,16, 17, 18indigestion, irritable bowel syndrome,19 mood disorders such as anxiety and depression,20, 21peptic ulcers,22pregnancy complications,23, 24, 25rheumatoid arthritis,26 skin diseases,27 impaired wound healing,28 and others.29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 Problems with recovery from surgery and impaired workplace performance are also associated with excessive stress.35, 36, 37, 38
Healthy Lifestyle Tips
While cigarette smokers often describe their habit as relaxing, smoking is associated with increased stress levels,39 and stopping the habit eventually results in reduced feelings of stress.40
Drinking alcohol can reduce feelings of stress,41 but using alcohol regularly in response to chronic or repetitive stress can lead to an unhealthy dependency.
Exercise has long been thought to have potential benefits to mental health and stress reduction;42, 43 however, exercise can also be stressful when it is intense or competitive.44, 45 Many preliminary studies have found that regular exercisers score better on measures of psychological well-being and perceived stress,46, 47, 48, 49, 50 and that people who improve their exercise habits develop changes in their mental attitudes that are associated with better resistance to stress.51 A controlled trial found that a single session of aerobic exercise reduced the anxiety associated with a subsequent experience designed to be psychologically stressful.52 However, studies of overall aerobic fitness have found that people with higher fitness levels are not different from those with lower fitness in their resistance to stress. One preliminary study gave aerobically fit and unfit women a mentally stressful test, and found no differences between them in physical or psychological measures of their stress reaction.53 Another preliminary study found that while physical activity was associated with reduced stress symptoms, having high aerobic fitness had no influence.54 This may mean that effects other than improved aerobic fitness, such as an improved self-image or the social support from belonging to an exercise group, are responsible for the benefits of exercise on controlling stress. A preliminary study in Thailand found that postmenopausal women who completed an aerobic exercise program consisting of 40- to 50-minute sessions twice weekly for 12 weeks had improved scores on a questionnaire designed to measure psychological stress.55 In a controlled trial, cancer patients hospitalized for chemotherapy who exercised for 30 minutes daily until discharge had significant improvement in several measures of psychological distress, while a similar group who did not exercise showed no change in these measures.56 In a controlled trial, 10 weeks of aerobic exercise resulted in healthier responses to acute mental stress in college students compared with students who did no exercise.57
Holistic Options
Mind-body medicine is a branch of healing that focuses on the role of thoughts and emotions on physical health. Many techniques used in this healing system, including biofeedback, relaxation training, tai chi, yoga, and meditation, which affect the nervous system in ways that could theoretically help people cope with stress.58 In a controlled trial, tai chi practice, meditation, walking exercise, and quiet reading all resulted in similar biochemical and psychological improvements in the response to a stressful experience.59 Meditation, practiced for spiritual reasons, for relaxation, or as part of the treatment of a disease, has been reported helpful for stress reduction in preliminary studies.60, 61, 62 A controlled study found 15 minutes of meditation twice a day reduced measures of stress in adolescents during two experiences designed to produce stress.63 Other controlled studies have found reductions in reported stress and related psychological measures after a program of meditation.64, 65
Stress reduction programs involving combinations of group counseling, instruction in coping skills and problem-solving, relaxation training, meditation, or other methods are effective for reducing stress and helping to prevent or manage health problems relating to stress, according to preliminary and controlled research.66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71
Eating Right
The right diet is the key to managing many diseases and to improving general quality of life. For this condition, scientific research has found benefit in the following healthy eating tips.
| Recommendation | Why |
|---|---|
| Focus on flaxseed |
Flaxseed, a good source of fiber and omega-3 fatty acids, has been shown to reduce the blood pressure–elevating effect of stress in one study.
Flaxseed is a good source of fiber and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and is a major source of lignans that may influence hormone function. A controlled study found that adding 30 grams per day of freshly ground flaxseed to the diets of postmenopausal women reduced the blood pressure–elevating effect of mental stress and reduced stress-related changes in fibrinogen, a blood component associated with increased risk of heart disease. However, flaxseed had no significant effect on blood levels of an adrenal stress hormone. |
Supplements
Our proprietary “Star-Rating” system was developed to help you easily understand the amount of scientific support behind each supplement in relation to a specific health condition. While there is no way to predict whether a vitamin, mineral, or herb will successfully treat or prevent associated health conditions, our unique ratings tell you how well these supplements are understood by some in the medical community, and whether studies have found them to be effective for other people.
For over a decade, our team has combed through thousands of research articles published in reputable journals. To help you make educated decisions, and to better understand controversial or confusing supplements, our medical experts have digested the science into these three easy-to-follow ratings. We hope this provides you with a helpful resource to make informed decisions towards your health and well-being.
3 Stars Reliable and relatively consistent scientific data showing a substantial health benefit.
2 Stars Contradictory, insufficient, or preliminary studies suggesting a health benefit or minimal health benefit.
1 Star For an herb, supported by traditional use but minimal or no scientific evidence. For a supplement, little scientific support.
| Supplement | Why |
|---|---|
|
3 Stars
L-Tyrosine
150 mg for every 2.2 lbs (1 kg) of body weight, split into two doses taken before stressful activitiy (take the second dose 40 to 90 minutes after the first)
|
Occasionally taking this amino acid before a stressful activity may help maintain your mental capacity.
Tyrosine is an amino acid used by the body to produce certain adrenal stress hormones and chemical messengers in the nervous system (neurotransmitters). Animal research shows that brain levels of these substances decline with stress, and that giving animals tyrosine supplements reverses this decline and improves various tests of performance in stressed animals. In a controlled study, a protein drink containing 10 grams per day of tyrosine was more effective than a carbohydrate drink for improving mental performance scores in a group of cadets taking a stressful six-day combat training course. A double-blind trial in humans found that one-time administration of 150 mg of tyrosine per 2.2 pounds of body weight helped prevent a decline in mental performance for about three hours during a night of sleep deprivation. Single administrations of tyrosine (100 to 150 mg per 2.2 pounds of body weight) have also helped preserve mental performance during physically stressful conditions such as noise or extreme cold in several controlled studies. |
|
3 Stars
Rhodiola
170 mg daily of a standardized herbal extract
|
Rhodiola has been shown to promote feelings of well-being and support mental function.
The herbs discussed here are considered members of a controversial category known as adaptogens, which are thought to increase the body's resistance to stress, and to generally enhance physical and mental functioning. Many animal studies have shown that various herbal adaptogens have protective effects against physically stressful experiences, but whether these findings are relevant to human stress experiences is debatable.
Animal studies have demonstrated protective effects of rhodiola extracts against physical stresses. A double-blind study of healthcare workers experiencing the stress of night duty found that taking 170 mg per day of a standardized rhodiola extract prevented some of the decline in a set of mental performance measures during the first two weeks. However, when this regimen was repeated after a two-week period of not taking the extract, rhodiola did not provide protection from mental performance decline. In another double-blind study, 100 mg per day of the same extract was given to medical students during a stressful exam period. Those taking the extract reported a better sense of general well-being, and performed better on tests of mental and psychomotor performance. A third double-blind study of military cadets performing a 24-hour duty showed that 370 to 555 mg of rhodiola extract per day significantly reduced mental fatigue, as measured by several performance tasks. Another double-blind trial confirmed the effectiveness of rhodiola for the treatment of stress-related fatigue. |
|
3 Stars
Vitamin C
100 to 3,000 mg daily
|
Studies have shown that supplementing with vitamin C helps to normalize stress-hormone levels.
Animal studies suggest that supplementing with vitamin C can reduce blood levels of stress-related hormones and other measures of stress. Controlled studies of athletes have shown that vitamin C supplementation (1,000 to 1,500 mg per day) can reduce stress hormone levels after intense exercise. Surgery patients given 2,000 mg per day of vitamin C during the week before and after surgery had a more rapid return to normal of several stress-related hormones compared with patients not given vitamin C. In a double-blind trial, young adults took 3,000 mg per day of vitamin C for two weeks, then were given a psychological stress test involving public speaking and mental arithmetic. Compared with a placebo group, those taking vitamin C rated themselves less stressed, scored better on an anxiety questionnaire, had smaller elevations of blood pressure, and returned sooner to lower levels of an adrenal stress hormone following the stress test. |
|
2 Stars
Asian Ginseng
Take an extract supplying at least 1.6 mg daily of ginsenosides, along with a multivitamin
|
Supplementing with Asian ginseng has been shown to enhance feelings of well-being and improve quality of life in some studies.
The herbs discussed here are considered members of a controversial category known as adaptogens, which are thought to increase the body's resistance to stress, and to generally enhance physical and mental functioning. Many animal studies have shown that various herbal adaptogens have protective effects against physically stressful experiences, but whether these findings are relevant to human stress experiences is debatable. Animal studies support the idea that Asian ginseng is an adaptogen. Some studies have suggested that Asian ginseng can enhance feelings of well-being in elderly people with age-associated memory impairment, nurses working night shifts, or people with diabetes. In a double-blind trial, people taking a daily combination of a multivitamin-mineral supplement (MVM) with 40 mg of ginseng extract (standardized for 4% ginsenosides) for 12 weeks reported greater improvements in quality of life measured with a questionnaire compared with a group taking only MVM. The same MVM-ginseng combination was tested in a double-blind study of night-shift healthcare workers. Compared with a placebo group, the group receiving the MVM-ginseng combination improved on one out of four measures of mental performance, one out of three measures of mood (increased calmness, but no change in alertness or contentment), and a measure of reported fatigue. However, in another double-blind study, healthy adults given 200 or 400 mg per day of a standardized extract of Asian ginseng (equivalent to 1,000 or 2,000 mg of ginseng root) showed no significant improvement in any of several measures of psychological well-being after two months. |
|
2 Stars
DHA
1.5 to 1.8 grams daily
|
Supplementing with omega-3 fatty acids, including DHA, may help improve responses to stress.
Animal and human studies suggest that deficiencies of omega-3 fatty acids may contribute to behaviors associated with unhealthy responses to stress. A double-blind study of students with a low dietary intake of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid) reported that taking 1.5 to 1.8 grams of DHA per day for three months prevented an increase in aggressiveness in these students during a stressful final exam period. This group of researchers reported in another double-blind study that 1.5 grams per day of DHA given to medical students during a stressful exam period resulted in changes in some, though not all, blood measurements indicating improved responses to stress. |
|
2 Stars
Eleuthero
2 to 3 grams per day of powdered root for 6 to 8 weeks, then stop 1 to 2 weeks, then resume if desired
|
Eleuthero appears to have antistress effects. Supplementing with an eleuthero extract led to higher quality-of-life measures in healthy elderly people, according to one study.
The herbs discussed here are considered members of a controversial category known as adaptogens, which are thought to increase the body's resistance to stress, and to generally enhance physical and mental functioning. Many animal studies have shown that various herbal adaptogens have protective effects against physically stressful experiences, but whether these findings are relevant to human stress experiences is debatable. Animal research has reported antistress effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus (also known as Siberian ginseng), and Russian research not available in the English language reportedly describes human studies showing similar effects in humans. A double-blind study of healthy elderly people reported that those who took 60 drops per day of a eleuthero liquid extract (concentration not specified) scored higher in some quality-of-life measures after four weeks, but not after eight weeks, compared with a group taking a placebo. Athletes experiencing the stress of training who took an eleuthero extract equivalent to 4 grams per day had no changes in their blood levels of an adrenal stress hormone after six weeks. More research is needed to clarify the value of eleuthero for treating stress. |
|
2 Stars
Multivitamin
Follow label directions
|
Several studies have shown that a daily multivitamin-mineral supplement may help people better cope with chronic stress by improving concentration, mood, and energy levels.
When asked why they are taking nutritional supplements, combating stress is one of the most common reasons given by people. Despite this popular attitude, human research on the effects of supplements on stress is sparse and conflicting. While there are animal studies and preliminary human reports suggesting that many vitamins are important for protecting the body from the consequences of physical stresses such as surgery, evidence supporting the use of vitamins to combat everyday stress is somewhat limited. Several studies have evaluated a daily supplement of vitamin B1 (15 mg), vitamin B2 (15 mg), vitamin B3 (50 mg), vitamin B6 (10 mg), vitamin B12 (10 mcg), vitamin C (500 mg), pantothenic acid (23 mg), folic acid (400 mcg), biotin (150 mcg), calcium (100 mg), magnesium (100 mg), and zinc (10 mg) for combating stress effects. People participating in preliminary trials of this combination have reported some benefits that relate to the effects of chronic stress, including improved concentration, better mood, and less fatigue. A small double-blind study of this combination reported no significant psychological benefits relating to stress. However, in a larger double-blind trial with healthy young men, this supplement resulted in significantly less anxiety and perceived stress according to some measurements after one month, though other stress-related symptoms did not improve. Another large, double-blind study of people experiencing high stress levels found this combination significantly helpful after one month according to several measures of anxiety, well-being, and psychological stress. In a year-long double-blind trial, a one-a-day type multivitamin-mineral supplement was no better than a supplement containing only vitamin B2, calcium, and magnesium for improving mental or physical measures of quality of life in a group of healthy adults. Stress is understood to have a detrimental effect on the balance of intestinal bacteria, but whether probiotic supplements improve the ability to handle stress is unknown. In a six-month preliminary trial, a multivitamin-mineral (MVM) supplement that also contained a blend of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Bifidobacterium longum was effective for improving scores on a stress questionnaire. However, this improvement could have been a placebo effect or could have been due to the MVM component. Controlled research comparing MVM supplements with and without added probiotics is necessary to determine whether probiotics are helpful for treating stress. |
|
1 Star
Ashwagandha
Refer to label instructions
|
Ashwagandha may be helpful for reducing the effects of stress, including chronic psychological stress.
The herbs discussed here are considered members of a controversial category known as adaptogens, which are thought to increase the body's resistance to stress, and to generally enhance physical and mental functioning. Many animal studies have shown that various herbal adaptogens have protective effects against physically stressful experiences, but whether these findings are relevant to human stress experiences is not always clear. Animal studies have suggested that ashwagandha may be helpful for reducing the effects of stress, including chronic psychological stress. In a double-blind study of people experiencing chronic stress, supplementation with 300 mg per day of a concentrated ashwaganda extract for 60 days significantly decreased perceived stress, compared with a placebo. An herbal formula from the Ayurvedic medicine tradition, containing extracts of ashwagandha, asparagus, pueraria, argyreia, dioscorea, mucuna, and piper, has been studied as an aid to coping with the stress of military combat. A double-blind study found that soldiers performed similarly in a set of mental and psychological tests after an eight-day combat mission whether they were given two capsules daily (exact content not revealed) of this formula or a placebo. This suggests there was no real benefit of the herbal formula under these conditions. |
|
1 Star
Maca
Refer to label instructions
|
Studies have shown that maca can reduce the negative effects of stress.
The herbs discussed here are considered members of a controversial category known as adaptogens, which are thought to increase the body's resistance to stress, and to generally enhance physical and mental functioning. Many animal studies have shown that various herbal adaptogens have protective effects against physically stressful experiences, but whether these findings are relevant to human stress experiences is debatable. Animal studies have shown that maca can reduce the negative effects of stress; however, whether maca is effective in humans is unknown. |
|
1 Star
Probiotics
Refer to label instructions
|
Probiotic supplements may help counteract stress’s detrimental effect on the balance of intestinal bacteria.
Stress is understood to have a detrimental effect on the balance of intestinal bacteria, but whether probiotic supplements improve the ability to handle stress is unknown. In a six-month preliminary trial, a multivitamin-mineral (MVM) supplement that also contained a blend of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Bifidobacterium longum was effective for improving scores on a stress questionnaire. However, this improvement could have been a placebo effect or could have been due to the MVM component. Controlled research comparing MVM supplements with and without added probiotics is necessary to determine whether probiotics are helpful for treating stress. |
References
1. Lutgendorf SK, Costanzo ES. Psychoneuroimmunology and health psychology: an integrative model. Brain Behav Immun 2003;17:225-32 [review].
2. McEwen BS, Seeman T. Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress. Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999;896:30-47 [review].
3. Chrousos GP, Gold PW. The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. JAMA 1992;267:1244-52 [review].
4. Brady KT, Sonne SC. The role of stress in alcohol use, alcoholism treatment, and relapse. Alcohol Res Health 1999;23:263-71 [review].
5. Wright RJ, Rodriguez M, Cohen S. Review of psychosocial stress and asthma: an integrated biopsychosocial approach. Thorax 1998;53:1066-74 [review].
6. Chrousos GP. Stress, chronic inflammation, and emotional and physical well-being: concurrent effects and chronic sequelae. J Allergy Clin Immunol2000;106:S275-91 [review].
7. Glaser R, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Stress-associated immune modulation: relevance to viral infections and chronic fatigue syndrome. Am J Med 1998;105:35S-42S [review].
8. Lenzi A, Lombardo F, Salacone P, et al. Stress, sexual dysfunctions, and male infertility. J Endocrinol Invest 2003;26(3 Suppl):72-6 [review].
9. Van Houdenhove B, Egle UT. Fibromyalgia: a stress disorder? Piecing the biopsychosocial puzzle together. Psychother Psychosom 2004;73:267-75 [review].
10. Jacobson SA, Folstein MF. Psychiatric perspectives on headache and facial pain. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2003;36:1187-200 [review].
11. Franco GP, de Barros AL, Nogueira-Martins LA, Michel JL. Stress influence on genesis, onset and maintenance of cardiovascular diseases: literature review. J Adv Nurs 2003;43:548-54 [review].
12. Kop WJ. Chronic and acute psychological risk factors for clinical manifestations of coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med 1999;61:476-87 [review].
13. Krantz DS, Sheps DS, Carney RM, Natelson BH. Effects of mental stress in patients with coronary artery disease: evidence and clinical implications. JAMA 2000;283:1800-2 [review].
14. Pickering TG. Effects of stress and behavioral interventions in hypertension. Pain and blood pressure. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2003;5:359-61 [review].
15. Mann SJ. The mind/body link in essential hypertension: time for a new paradigm. Altern Ther Health Med 2000;6:39-45 [review].
16. Padgett DA, Glaser R. How stress influences the immune response. Trends Immunol 2003;24:444-8 [review].
17. Antoni MH. Stress management effects on psychological, endocrinological, and immune functioning in men with HIV infection: empirical support for a psychoneuroimmunological model. Stress 2003;6:173-88 [review].
18. Cruess DG, Leserman J, Petitto JM, et al. Psychosocial-immune relationships in HIV disease. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 2001;6:241-51 [review].
19. Mayer EA, Naliboff BD, Chang L, Coutinho SV. V. Stress and irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2001;280:G519-G24 [review].
20. Gutman DA, Nemeroff CB. Persistent central nervous system effects of an adverse early environment: clinical and preclinical studies. Physiol Behav 2003;79:471-8 [review].
21. Leonard BE. Stress, norepinephrine and depression. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2001;26 Suppl:S11-S6 [review].
22. Levenstein S. The very model of a modern etiology: a biopsychosocial view of peptic ulcer. Psychosom Med 2000;62:176-85 [review].
23. Gennaro S, Hennessy MD. Psychological and physiological stress: impact on preterm birth. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2003;32:668-75 [review].
24. Livingston IL, Otado JA, Warren C. Stress, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and African-American females. J Natl Med Assoc 2003;95:1103-9 [review].
25. Dewey KG. Maternal and fetal stress are associated with impaired lactogenesis in humans. J Nutr 2001;131:3012S-5S [review].
26. Walker JG, Littlejohn GO, McMurray NE, Cutolo M. Stress system response and rheumatoid arthritis: a multilevel approach. Rheumatology (Oxford) 1999;38:1050-7 [review].
27. Kimyai-Asadi A, Usman A. The role of psychological stress in skin disease. J Cutan Med Surg 2001;5:140-5 [review].
28. Norman D. The effects of stress on wound healing and leg ulceration. Br J Nurs 2003;12:1256-63 [review].
29. McEwen BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1719 [review].
30. Black PH. The inflammatory response is an integral part of the stress response: Implications for atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, type II diabetes and metabolic syndrome X. Brain Behav Immun 2003;17:350-64 [review].
31. Grant KE, Compas BE, Stuhlmacher AF, et al. Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: moving from markers to mechanisms of risk. Psychol Bull 2003;129:447-66 [review].
32. Boone JL, Anthony JP. Evaluating the impact of stress on systemic disease: the MOST protocol in primary care. J Am Osteopath Assoc 2003;103:239-46 [review].
33. Rollman GB, Gillespie JM. The role of psychosocial factors in temporomandibular disorders. Curr Rev Pain 2000;4:71-81 [review].
34. Spiegel D, Sephton SE. Psychoneuroimmune and endocrine pathways in cancer: effects of stress and support. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 2001;6:252-65 [review].
35. Petry JJ. Surgery and complementary therapies: a review. Altern Ther Health Med 2000;6:64-74 [review].
36. Jones DL, Tanigawa T, Weiss SM. Stress management and workplace disability in the US, Europe and Japan. J Occup Health 2003;45:1-7 [review].
37. Daraiseh N, Genaidy AM, Karwowski W, et al. Musculoskeletal outcomes in multiple body regions and work effects among nurses: the effects of stressful and stimulating working conditions. Ergonomics 2003;46:1178-99 [review].
38. Lambert VA, Lambert CE, Yamase H. Psychological hardiness, workplace stress and related stress reduction strategies. Nurs Health Sci 2003;5:181-4 [review].
39. Parrott AC. Cigarette smoking does cause stress. Am Psychol2000;55:1159-60.
40. Long D. Smoking as a coping strategy. Nurs Times 2003;99(33):50,53 [review].
41. Sayette MA. Does drinking reduce stress? Alcohol Res Health 1999;23:250-5 [review].
42. Dishman RK. Medical psychology in exercise and sport. Med Clin North Am 1985;69:123-43 [review].
43. Steptoe A, Kimbell J, Basford P. Exercise and the experience and appraisal of daily stressors: a naturalistic study. J Behav Med 1998;21:363-74.
44. De Vries WR, Bernards NT, de Rooij MH, et al. Dynamic exercise discloses different time-related responses in stress hormones. Psychosom Med 2000;62:866-72.
45. Perna FM, Schneiderman N, LaPerriere A. Psychological stress, exercise and immunity. Int J Sports Med 1997;18 Suppl 1:S78-S83 [review].
46. Aldana SG, Sutton LD, Jacobson BH, Quirk MG. Relationships between leisure time physical activity and perceived stress. Percept Mot Skills 1996;82:315-21.
47. Hassmen P, Koivula N, Uutela A. Physical exercise and psychological well-being: a population study in Finland. Prev Med 2000;30:17-25.
48. Iwasaki Y, Zuzanek J, Mannell RC. The effects of physically active leisure on stress-health relationships. Can J Public Health 2001;92:214-8.
49. Carmack CL, Boudreaux E, Amaral-Melendez M, et al. Aerobic fitness and leisure physical activity as moderators of the stress-illness relation. Ann Behav Med 1999;21:251-7.
50. Salmon P. Effects of physical exercise on anxiety, depression, and sensitivity to stress: a unifying theory. Clin Psychol Rev 2001;21:33-61 [review].
51. Nakamura H, Matsuzaki I, Sasahara S, et al. Enhancement of a sense of coherence and natural killer cell activity which occurred in subjects who improved their exercise habits through health education in the workplace. J Occup Health 2003;45:278-85.
52. Rejeski WJ, Thompson A, Brubaker PH, Miller HS. Acute exercise: buffering psychosocial stress responses in women. Health Psychol 1992;11:355-62.
53. Summers H, Lustyk MK, Heitkemper M, Jarrett ME. Effect of aerobic fitness on the physiological stress response in women. Biol Res Nurs 1999;1:48-56.
54. Carmack CL, Boudreaux E, Amaral-Melendez M, et al. Aerobic fitness and leisure physical activity as moderators of the stress-illness relation. Ann Behav Med 1999;21:251-7.
55. Sunsern R. Effects of exercise on stress in Thai postmenopausal women. Health Care Women Int 2002;23:924-32.
56. Dimeo FC, Stieglitz RD, Novelli-Fischer U, et al. Effects of physical activity on the fatigue and psychologic status of cancer patients during chemotherapy. Cancer 1999;85:2273-7.
57. Anshel MH. Effect of chronic aerobic exercise and progressive relaxation on motor performance and affect following acute stress. Behav Med 1996;21:186-96.
58. Jacobs GD. The physiology of mind-body interactions: the stress response and the relaxation response. J Altern Complement Med 2001;7 Suppl 1:S83-S92 [review].
59. Jin P. Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking, meditation, and reading in reducing mental and emotional stress. J Psychosom Res 1992;36:361-70.
60. Proulx K. Integrating mindfulness-based stress reduction. Holist Nurs Pract2003;17:201-8 [review].
61. Jacobs GD. Clinical applications of the relaxation response and mind-body interventions. J Altern Complement Med 2001;7 Suppl 1:S93-S101 [review].
62. Gross CR, Kreitzer MJ, Russas V, et al. Mindfulness meditation to reduce symptoms after organ transplant: a pilot study. Altern Ther Health Med 2004;10:58-66.
63. Barnes VA, Treiber FA, Davis H. Impact of Transcendental Meditation on cardiovascular function at rest and during acute stress in adolescents with high normal blood pressure. J Psychosom Res 2001;51:597-605.
64. Shapiro SL, Schwartz GE, Bonner G. Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on medical and premedical students. J Behav Med 1998;21:581-99.
65. Astin JA. Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation. Effects on psychological symptomatology, sense of control, and spiritual experiences. Psychother Psychosom 1997;66:97-106.
66. Jones DL, Tanigawa T, Weiss SM. Stress management and workplace disability in the US, Europe and Japan. J Occup Health 2003;45:1-7 [review].
67. Edwards D, Burnard P, Owen M, et al. A systematic review of the effectiveness of stress-management interventions for mental health professionals. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2003;10:370-1.
68. Shapiro SL, Shapiro DE, Schwartz GE. Stress management in medical education: a review of the literature. Acad Med 2000;75:748-59 [review].
69. Jacobs GD. Clinical applications of the relaxation response and mind-body interventions. J Altern Complement Med 2001;7 Suppl 1:S93-S101 [review].
70. Williams KA, Kolar MM, Reger BE, Pearson JC. Evaluation of a wellness-based mindfulness stress reduction intervention: a controlled trial. Am J Health Promot 2001;15:422-32.
71. Carlson LE, Ursuliak Z, Goodey E, et al. The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up. Support Care Cancer 2001;9:112-23.
Last Review: 06-08-2015
Copyright © 2025 TraceGains, Inc. All rights reserved.
Learn more about TraceGains, the company.
The information presented by TraceGains is for informational purposes only. It is based on scientific studies (human, animal, or in vitro), clinical experience, or traditional usage as cited in each article. The results reported may not necessarily occur in all individuals. Self-treatment is not recommended for life-threatening conditions that require medical treatment under a doctor's care. For many of the conditions discussed, treatment with prescription or over the counter medication is also available. Consult your doctor, practitioner, and/or pharmacist for any health problem and before using any supplements or before making any changes in prescribed medications. Information expires December 2025.
